.Computer science (sometimes called computation science or computing science, but not to be confused with or ) is the study of that interact with and that can be represented as data in the form of. It enables the use of to,. A studies the and the practice of.Its fields can be divided into theoretical. Is highly abstract, while emphasizes real-world applications.
The Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) program in Computer Science enables students to conduct independent research in the field of CS. A PhD student gain knowledge through state-of-the art course work and also gain practical experience by contributing research. And Applied Science offers an online Computer Science Doctorate Degree for. Of theoretical concepts as well as practical applications of Computer Science.
Considers approaches to the description of computational processes, while itself involves the use of. Considers the challenges in making computers useful, usable,. Is often credited with publishing the first intended for processing on a computer.The earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the have existed since antiquity, aiding in computations such as multiplication and division. For performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated computing equipment.designed and constructed the first working in 1623. In 1673, demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the. He may be considered the first computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons, documenting the binary number system.
In 1820, launched the industry when he released his simplified, which was the first calculating machine strong enough and reliable enough to be used daily in an office environment. Started the design of the first automatic mechanical calculator, his, in 1822, which eventually gave him the idea of the first programmable mechanical calculator, his. He started developing this machine in 1834, and 'in less than two years, he had sketched out many of the features of the modern computer'.
'A crucial step was the adoption of a punched card system derived from the ' making it infinitely programmable. In 1843, during the translation of a French article on the Analytical Engine, wrote, in one of the many notes she included, an algorithm to compute the, which is considered to be the first published algorithm ever specifically tailored for implementation on a computer. Around 1885, invented the, which used to process statistical information; eventually his company became part of. Following Babbage, although unaware of his earlier work, in 1909 published the 2nd of the only two designs for mechanical analytical engines in history. In 1937, one hundred years after Babbage's impossible dream, convinced IBM, which was making all kinds of punched card equipment and was also in the calculator business to develop his giant programmable calculator, the, based on Babbage's Analytical Engine, which itself used cards and a central computing unit.
When the machine was finished, some hailed it as 'Babbage's dream come true'.During the 1940s, as new and more powerful machines such as the and were developed, the term computer came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors. As it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study in general.
In 1945, founded the Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory at in. The renovated fraternity house on Manhattan's West Side was IBM's first laboratory devoted to pure science. The lab is the forerunner of IBM's Research Division, which today operates research facilities around the world. Ultimately, the close relationship between IBM and the university was instrumental in the emergence of a new scientific discipline, with Columbia offering one of the first academic-credit courses in computer science in 1946.
Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1950s and early 1960s. The world's first computer science degree program, the, began at the in 1953. The first computer science department in the United States was formed at in 1962. Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights.Although many initially believed it was impossible that computers themselves could actually be a scientific field of study, in the late fifties it gradually became accepted among the greater academic population.
It is the now well-known brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM (short for International Business Machines) released the IBM 704 and later the IBM 709 computers, which were widely used during the exploration period of such devices. 'Still, working with the IBM computer was frustrating if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again'. During the late 1950s, the computer science discipline was very much in its developmental stages, and such issues were commonplace.Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of.
Modern society has seen a significant shift in the users of computer technology, from usage only by experts and professionals, to a near- user base. Initially, computers were quite costly, and some degree of humanitarian aid was needed for efficient use—in part from professional computer operators.
As computer adoption became more widespread and affordable, less human assistance was needed for common usage. The German military used the (shown here) during for communications they wanted kept secret. Main article:A number of computer scientists have argued for the distinction of three separate paradigms in computer science.
Argued that those paradigms are science, technology, and mathematics. 's working group argued that they are theory, abstraction (modeling), and design.
Eden described them as the 'rationalist paradigm' (which treats computer science as a branch of mathematics, which is prevalent in theoretical computer science, and mainly employs ), the 'technocratic paradigm' (which might be found in engineering approaches, most prominently in software engineering), and the 'scientific paradigm' (which approaches computer-related artifacts from the empirical perspective of, identifiable in some branches of ). Fields Computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes.
Further information:As a discipline, computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of algorithms and the limits of computation to the practical issues of implementing computing systems in hardware and software., formerly called Computing Sciences Accreditation Board—which is made up of representatives of the (ACM), and the (IEEE CS) —identifies four areas that it considers crucial to the discipline of computer science: theory of computation, algorithms and data structures, programming methodology and languages, and computer elements and architecture. In addition to these four areas, CSAB also identifies fields such as software engineering, artificial intelligence, computer networking and communication, database systems, parallel computation, distributed computation, human–computer interaction, computer graphics, operating systems, and numerical and as being important areas of computer science.
Theoretical computer science. Main article:Theoretical Computer Science is mathematical and abstract in spirit, but it derives its motivation from practical and everyday computation.
Its aim is to understand the nature of computation and, as a consequence of this understanding, provide more efficient methodologies. All studies related to mathematical, logic and formal concepts and methods could be considered as theoretical computer science, provided that the motivation is clearly drawn from the field of computing.Data structures and algorithms. Main article:According to, the fundamental question underlying computer science is, 'What can be (efficiently) automated?' Theory of computation is focused on answering fundamental questions about what can be computed and what amount of resources are required to perform those computations. In an effort to answer the first question, examines which computational problems are solvable on various theoretical.
The second question is addressed by, which studies the time and space costs associated with different approaches to solving a multitude of computational problems.The famous problem, one of the, is an open problem in the theory of computation.P = NP?GNITIRW-TERCESInformation and coding theory. Main articles: andInformation theory is related to the quantification of information. This was developed by to find fundamental limits on operations such as compressing data and on reliably storing and communicating data.Coding theory is the study of the properties of (systems for converting information from one form to another) and their fitness for a specific application. Codes are used for, and more recently also for.
Codes are studied for the purpose of designing efficient and reliable methods.Programming language theory. Main article:Formal methods are a particular kind of based technique for the, development and of software and systems. The use of formal methods for software and hardware design is motivated by the expectation that, as in other engineering disciplines, performing appropriate mathematical analysis can contribute to the reliability and robustness of a design. They form an important theoretical underpinning for software engineering, especially where safety or security is involved.
Formal methods are a useful adjunct to software testing since they help avoid errors and can also give a framework for testing. For industrial use, tool support is required. However, the high cost of using formal methods means that they are usually only used in the development of high-integrity and, where safety or is of utmost importance.
Formal methods are best described as the application of a fairly broad variety of fundamentals, in particular calculi, and, but also and to problems in software and hardware specification and verification.Computer systems Computer architecture and computer engineering. Main articles: andComputer architecture, or digital computer organization, is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a computer system.
It focuses largely on the way by which the central processing unit performs internally and accesses addresses in memory. The field often involves disciplines of computer engineering and electrical engineering, selecting and interconnecting hardware components to create computers that meet functional, performance, and cost goals.Computer performance analysis. Main articles: andConcurrency is a property of systems in which several computations are executing simultaneously, and potentially interacting with each other. A number of mathematical models have been developed for general concurrent computation including, and the model. When multiple computers are connected in a network while using concurrency, this is known as a distributed system. Computers within that distributed system have their own private memory, and information can be exchanged to achieve common goals.
Computer networks. Main articles: andComputer security is a branch of computer technology with an objective of protecting information from unauthorized access, disruption, or modification while maintaining the accessibility and usability of the system for its intended users.
Is the practice and study of hiding (encryption) and therefore deciphering (decryption) information. Modern cryptography is largely related to computer science, for many encryption and decryption algorithms are based on their computational complexity.Databases. This article is missing information about a structured set of data held in a computer, especially one that is accessible in various ways. Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the. ( September 2018)A database is intended to organize, store, and retrieve large amounts of data easily.
Digital databases are managed using database management systems to store, create, maintain, and search data, through and.Computer applications Computer graphics and visualization. Main article:Artificial intelligence (AI) aims to or is required to synthesize goal-orientated processes such as problem-solving, decision-making, environmental adaptation, learning, and communication found in humans and animals. From its origins in and in the (1956), artificial intelligence research has been necessarily cross-disciplinary, drawing on areas of expertise such as,. AI is associated in the popular mind with, but the main field of practical application has been as an embedded component in areas of, which require computational understanding.
The starting point in the late 1940s was 's question 'Can computers think?' , and the question remains effectively unanswered, although the is still used to assess computer output on the scale of human intelligence.
But the automation of evaluative and predictive tasks has been increasingly successful as a substitute for human monitoring and intervention in domains of computer application involving complex real-world data.Software engineering. See also:Software engineering is the study of designing, implementing, and modifying software in order to ensure it is of high quality, affordable, maintainable, and fast to build. It is a systematic approach to software design, involving the application of engineering practices to software. See also:. and 's insight: there are only three ways of combining these actions (into more complex ones) that are needed in order for a computer to do 'anything'.Only three rules are needed to combine any set of basic instructions into more complex ones:. sequence: first do this, then do that;. selection: IF such-and-such is the case, THEN do this, ELSE do that;.
repetition: WHILE such-and-such is the case DO this.Note that the three rules of Boehm's and Jacopini's insight can be further simplified with the use of (which means it is more elementary than ). Main article:Programming languages can be used to accomplish different tasks in different ways.
Common programming paradigms include:., a style of building the structure and elements of computer programs that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It is a declarative programming paradigm, which means programming is done with expressions or declarations instead of statements., a programming paradigm that uses statements that change a program's state. In much the same way that the imperative mood in natural languages expresses commands, an imperative program consists of commands for the computer to perform. Imperative programming focuses on describing how a program operates., a programming paradigm based on the concept of 'objects', which may contain data, in the form of fields, often known as attributes; and code, in the form of procedures, often known as methods. A feature of objects is that an object's procedures can access and often modify the data fields of the object with which they are associated. Thus Object-oriented computer programs are made out of objects that interact with one another.Many languages offer support for multiple paradigms, making the distinction more a matter of style than of technical capabilities. Academia.
Further information: andConferences are important events for computer science research. During these conferences, researchers from the public and private sectors present their recent work and meet. Unlike in most other academic fields, in computer science, the prestige of is greater than that of journal publications. One proposed explanation for this is the quick development of this relatively new field requires rapid review and distribution of results, a task better handled by conferences than by journals.
Education Computer Science, known by its near synonyms, Computing, Computer Studies, Information Technology (IT) and Information and Computing Technology (ICT), has been taught in UK schools since the days of, and but usually to a select few students. In 1981, the BBC produced a and and Computer Studies became common for GCE students (11–16-year-old), and Computer Science to students. Its importance was recognised, and it became a compulsory part of the, for Key Stage 3 & 4. In September 2014 it became an entitlement for all 7,000,000 pupils over the age of 4.In the, with 14,000 school districts deciding the curriculum, provision was fractured. According to a 2010 report by the (ACM) and (CSTA), only 14 out of 50 states have adopted significant education standards for high school computer science.Israel, New Zealand, and South Korea have included computer science in their national secondary education curricula, and several others are following. Challenges In many countries, there is a significant gender gap in computer science education.
In 2012, only 20 percent of computer science degrees in the United States were awarded to women. The gender gap is also a problem in other western countries. The gap is smaller, or nonexistent, in some parts of the world. In 2011, women earned half of the computer science degrees in. In 2001, 55 percent of computer science graduates in were women. See also.
In 1851. 'The introduction of punched cards into the new engine was important not only as a more convenient form of control than the drums, or because programs could now be of unlimited extent, and could be stored and repeated without the danger of introducing errors in setting the machine by hand; it was important also because it served to crystallize Babbage's feeling that he had invented something really new, something much more than a sophisticated calculating machine.' , 1970. See the entry' on Wikiquote for the history of this quotation. The word 'anything' is written in quotation marks because there are things that computers cannot do. One example is: to answer the question if an arbitrary given computer program will eventually finish or run forever (the ).References.
Overview. (2004). Computer Science Handbook (2nd ed.). Chapman and Hall/CRC. 'Within more than 70 chapters, every one new or significantly revised, one can find any kind of information and references about computer science one can imagine. all in all, there is absolute nothing about Computer Science that can not be found in the 2.5 kilogram-encyclopaedia with its 110 survey articles.' (Christoph Meinel, ).
(1994). Handbook of Theoretical Computer Science. The MIT Press.
' this set is the most unique and possibly the most useful to the theoretical computer science community, in support both of teaching and research. The books can be used by anyone wanting simply to gain an understanding of one of these areas, or by someone desiring to be in research in a topic, or by instructors wishing to find timely information on a subject they are teaching outside their major areas of expertise.' (Rocky Ross, ).;; (2000).
Grove's Dictionaries. 'Since 1976, this has been the definitive reference work on computer, computing, and computer science. Alphabetically arranged and classified into broad subject areas, the entries cover hardware, computer systems, information and data, software, the mathematics of computing, theory of computation, methodologies, applications, and computing milieu.
The editors have done a commendable job of blending historical perspective and practical reference information. The encyclopedia remains essential for most public and academic library reference collections.' (Joe Accardin, Northeastern Illinois Univ., Chicago). Edwin D. Reilly (2003). Greenwood Publishing Group.Selected literature.
(1996). Selected Papers on Computer Science. CSLI Publications,. Collier, Bruce (1990).
Garland Publishing Inc. Cohen, Bernard (2000). Howard Aiken, Portrait of a computer pioneer. The MIT press.
Tedre, Matti (2014). The Science of Computing: Shaping a Discipline. CRC Press,. (1973).
The origins of Digital computers, Selected Papers. Springer-Verlag.
'Covering a period from 1966 to 1993, its interest lies not only in the content of each of these papers – still timely today – but also in their being put together so that ideas expressed at different times complement each other nicely.' Bernard, Zentralblatt MATH)Articles. Peter J. Denning., Communications of the ACM, April 2005. Peter J. Denning, Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, 2004.
Research evaluation for computer science, Informatics Europe. Shorter journal version: Bertrand Meyer, Christine Choppy, Jan van Leeuwen and Jorgen Staunstrup, Research evaluation for computer science, in, vol. 4, pp. 31–34, April 2009.Curriculum and classification. 1998. Joint Task Force of Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), (AIS) and (IEEE CS).
September 30, 2005., Allen Tucker. 'A model curriculum for a liberal arts degree in computer science'. Communications of the ACM, Volume 29 Issue 3, March 1986.External links Wikibooks has a book on the topic of.
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.Computer science (sometimes called computation science or computing science, but not to be confused with or ) is the study of that interact with and that can be represented as data in the form of. It enables the use of to,. A studies the and the practice of.Its fields can be divided into theoretical. Is highly abstract, while emphasizes real-world applications. Considers approaches to the description of computational processes, while itself involves the use of. Considers the challenges in making computers useful, usable,.
Is often credited with publishing the first intended for processing on a computer.The earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the have existed since antiquity, aiding in computations such as multiplication and division. For performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated computing equipment.designed and constructed the first working in 1623.
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In 1673, demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the. He may be considered the first computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons, documenting the binary number system. In 1820, launched the industry when he released his simplified, which was the first calculating machine strong enough and reliable enough to be used daily in an office environment. Started the design of the first automatic mechanical calculator, his, in 1822, which eventually gave him the idea of the first programmable mechanical calculator, his. He started developing this machine in 1834, and 'in less than two years, he had sketched out many of the features of the modern computer'.
'A crucial step was the adoption of a punched card system derived from the ' making it infinitely programmable. In 1843, during the translation of a French article on the Analytical Engine, wrote, in one of the many notes she included, an algorithm to compute the, which is considered to be the first published algorithm ever specifically tailored for implementation on a computer. Around 1885, invented the, which used to process statistical information; eventually his company became part of. Following Babbage, although unaware of his earlier work, in 1909 published the 2nd of the only two designs for mechanical analytical engines in history.
In 1937, one hundred years after Babbage's impossible dream, convinced IBM, which was making all kinds of punched card equipment and was also in the calculator business to develop his giant programmable calculator, the, based on Babbage's Analytical Engine, which itself used cards and a central computing unit. When the machine was finished, some hailed it as 'Babbage's dream come true'.During the 1940s, as new and more powerful machines such as the and were developed, the term computer came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors.
As it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study in general. In 1945, founded the Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory at in. The renovated fraternity house on Manhattan's West Side was IBM's first laboratory devoted to pure science. The lab is the forerunner of IBM's Research Division, which today operates research facilities around the world. Ultimately, the close relationship between IBM and the university was instrumental in the emergence of a new scientific discipline, with Columbia offering one of the first academic-credit courses in computer science in 1946. Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1950s and early 1960s. The world's first computer science degree program, the, began at the in 1953.
The first computer science department in the United States was formed at in 1962. Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights.Although many initially believed it was impossible that computers themselves could actually be a scientific field of study, in the late fifties it gradually became accepted among the greater academic population. It is the now well-known brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM (short for International Business Machines) released the IBM 704 and later the IBM 709 computers, which were widely used during the exploration period of such devices. 'Still, working with the IBM computer was frustrating if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again'. During the late 1950s, the computer science discipline was very much in its developmental stages, and such issues were commonplace.Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of. Modern society has seen a significant shift in the users of computer technology, from usage only by experts and professionals, to a near- user base.
Initially, computers were quite costly, and some degree of humanitarian aid was needed for efficient use—in part from professional computer operators. As computer adoption became more widespread and affordable, less human assistance was needed for common usage. The German military used the (shown here) during for communications they wanted kept secret. Main article:A number of computer scientists have argued for the distinction of three separate paradigms in computer science. Argued that those paradigms are science, technology, and mathematics.
's working group argued that they are theory, abstraction (modeling), and design. Eden described them as the 'rationalist paradigm' (which treats computer science as a branch of mathematics, which is prevalent in theoretical computer science, and mainly employs ), the 'technocratic paradigm' (which might be found in engineering approaches, most prominently in software engineering), and the 'scientific paradigm' (which approaches computer-related artifacts from the empirical perspective of, identifiable in some branches of ). Fields Computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes. Further information:As a discipline, computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of algorithms and the limits of computation to the practical issues of implementing computing systems in hardware and software., formerly called Computing Sciences Accreditation Board—which is made up of representatives of the (ACM), and the (IEEE CS) —identifies four areas that it considers crucial to the discipline of computer science: theory of computation, algorithms and data structures, programming methodology and languages, and computer elements and architecture.
In addition to these four areas, CSAB also identifies fields such as software engineering, artificial intelligence, computer networking and communication, database systems, parallel computation, distributed computation, human–computer interaction, computer graphics, operating systems, and numerical and as being important areas of computer science. Theoretical computer science. Main article:Theoretical Computer Science is mathematical and abstract in spirit, but it derives its motivation from practical and everyday computation. Its aim is to understand the nature of computation and, as a consequence of this understanding, provide more efficient methodologies. All studies related to mathematical, logic and formal concepts and methods could be considered as theoretical computer science, provided that the motivation is clearly drawn from the field of computing.Data structures and algorithms. Main article:According to, the fundamental question underlying computer science is, 'What can be (efficiently) automated?'
Theory of computation is focused on answering fundamental questions about what can be computed and what amount of resources are required to perform those computations. In an effort to answer the first question, examines which computational problems are solvable on various theoretical. The second question is addressed by, which studies the time and space costs associated with different approaches to solving a multitude of computational problems.The famous problem, one of the, is an open problem in the theory of computation.P = NP?GNITIRW-TERCESInformation and coding theory. Main articles: andInformation theory is related to the quantification of information. This was developed by to find fundamental limits on operations such as compressing data and on reliably storing and communicating data.Coding theory is the study of the properties of (systems for converting information from one form to another) and their fitness for a specific application.
Codes are used for, and more recently also for. Codes are studied for the purpose of designing efficient and reliable methods.Programming language theory. Main article:Formal methods are a particular kind of based technique for the, development and of software and systems. The use of formal methods for software and hardware design is motivated by the expectation that, as in other engineering disciplines, performing appropriate mathematical analysis can contribute to the reliability and robustness of a design. They form an important theoretical underpinning for software engineering, especially where safety or security is involved. Formal methods are a useful adjunct to software testing since they help avoid errors and can also give a framework for testing.
For industrial use, tool support is required. However, the high cost of using formal methods means that they are usually only used in the development of high-integrity and, where safety or is of utmost importance. Formal methods are best described as the application of a fairly broad variety of fundamentals, in particular calculi, and, but also and to problems in software and hardware specification and verification.Computer systems Computer architecture and computer engineering. Main articles: andComputer architecture, or digital computer organization, is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a computer system.
It focuses largely on the way by which the central processing unit performs internally and accesses addresses in memory. The field often involves disciplines of computer engineering and electrical engineering, selecting and interconnecting hardware components to create computers that meet functional, performance, and cost goals.Computer performance analysis.
Main articles: andConcurrency is a property of systems in which several computations are executing simultaneously, and potentially interacting with each other. A number of mathematical models have been developed for general concurrent computation including, and the model. When multiple computers are connected in a network while using concurrency, this is known as a distributed system. Computers within that distributed system have their own private memory, and information can be exchanged to achieve common goals. Computer networks. Main articles: andComputer security is a branch of computer technology with an objective of protecting information from unauthorized access, disruption, or modification while maintaining the accessibility and usability of the system for its intended users.
Is the practice and study of hiding (encryption) and therefore deciphering (decryption) information. Modern cryptography is largely related to computer science, for many encryption and decryption algorithms are based on their computational complexity.Databases. This article is missing information about a structured set of data held in a computer, especially one that is accessible in various ways. Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the. ( September 2018)A database is intended to organize, store, and retrieve large amounts of data easily. Digital databases are managed using database management systems to store, create, maintain, and search data, through and.Computer applications Computer graphics and visualization.
Main article:Artificial intelligence (AI) aims to or is required to synthesize goal-orientated processes such as problem-solving, decision-making, environmental adaptation, learning, and communication found in humans and animals. From its origins in and in the (1956), artificial intelligence research has been necessarily cross-disciplinary, drawing on areas of expertise such as,. AI is associated in the popular mind with, but the main field of practical application has been as an embedded component in areas of, which require computational understanding. The starting point in the late 1940s was 's question 'Can computers think?'
, and the question remains effectively unanswered, although the is still used to assess computer output on the scale of human intelligence. But the automation of evaluative and predictive tasks has been increasingly successful as a substitute for human monitoring and intervention in domains of computer application involving complex real-world data.Software engineering. See also:Software engineering is the study of designing, implementing, and modifying software in order to ensure it is of high quality, affordable, maintainable, and fast to build. It is a systematic approach to software design, involving the application of engineering practices to software. See also:. and 's insight: there are only three ways of combining these actions (into more complex ones) that are needed in order for a computer to do 'anything'.Only three rules are needed to combine any set of basic instructions into more complex ones:. sequence: first do this, then do that;.
selection: IF such-and-such is the case, THEN do this, ELSE do that;. repetition: WHILE such-and-such is the case DO this.Note that the three rules of Boehm's and Jacopini's insight can be further simplified with the use of (which means it is more elementary than ). Main article:Programming languages can be used to accomplish different tasks in different ways. Common programming paradigms include:., a style of building the structure and elements of computer programs that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It is a declarative programming paradigm, which means programming is done with expressions or declarations instead of statements., a programming paradigm that uses statements that change a program's state. In much the same way that the imperative mood in natural languages expresses commands, an imperative program consists of commands for the computer to perform.
Imperative programming focuses on describing how a program operates., a programming paradigm based on the concept of 'objects', which may contain data, in the form of fields, often known as attributes; and code, in the form of procedures, often known as methods. A feature of objects is that an object's procedures can access and often modify the data fields of the object with which they are associated. Thus Object-oriented computer programs are made out of objects that interact with one another.Many languages offer support for multiple paradigms, making the distinction more a matter of style than of technical capabilities.
Academia. Further information: andConferences are important events for computer science research. During these conferences, researchers from the public and private sectors present their recent work and meet. Unlike in most other academic fields, in computer science, the prestige of is greater than that of journal publications.
One proposed explanation for this is the quick development of this relatively new field requires rapid review and distribution of results, a task better handled by conferences than by journals. Education Computer Science, known by its near synonyms, Computing, Computer Studies, Information Technology (IT) and Information and Computing Technology (ICT), has been taught in UK schools since the days of, and but usually to a select few students.
In 1981, the BBC produced a and and Computer Studies became common for GCE students (11–16-year-old), and Computer Science to students. Its importance was recognised, and it became a compulsory part of the, for Key Stage 3 & 4. In September 2014 it became an entitlement for all 7,000,000 pupils over the age of 4.In the, with 14,000 school districts deciding the curriculum, provision was fractured. According to a 2010 report by the (ACM) and (CSTA), only 14 out of 50 states have adopted significant education standards for high school computer science.Israel, New Zealand, and South Korea have included computer science in their national secondary education curricula, and several others are following. Challenges In many countries, there is a significant gender gap in computer science education. In 2012, only 20 percent of computer science degrees in the United States were awarded to women. The gender gap is also a problem in other western countries.
The gap is smaller, or nonexistent, in some parts of the world. In 2011, women earned half of the computer science degrees in. In 2001, 55 percent of computer science graduates in were women. See also. In 1851. 'The introduction of punched cards into the new engine was important not only as a more convenient form of control than the drums, or because programs could now be of unlimited extent, and could be stored and repeated without the danger of introducing errors in setting the machine by hand; it was important also because it served to crystallize Babbage's feeling that he had invented something really new, something much more than a sophisticated calculating machine.' , 1970.
See the entry' on Wikiquote for the history of this quotation. The word 'anything' is written in quotation marks because there are things that computers cannot do. One example is: to answer the question if an arbitrary given computer program will eventually finish or run forever (the ).References. Overview. (2004). Computer Science Handbook (2nd ed.).
Chapman and Hall/CRC. 'Within more than 70 chapters, every one new or significantly revised, one can find any kind of information and references about computer science one can imagine. all in all, there is absolute nothing about Computer Science that can not be found in the 2.5 kilogram-encyclopaedia with its 110 survey articles.' (Christoph Meinel, ). (1994). Handbook of Theoretical Computer Science. The MIT Press.
' this set is the most unique and possibly the most useful to the theoretical computer science community, in support both of teaching and research. The books can be used by anyone wanting simply to gain an understanding of one of these areas, or by someone desiring to be in research in a topic, or by instructors wishing to find timely information on a subject they are teaching outside their major areas of expertise.' (Rocky Ross, ).;; (2000). Grove's Dictionaries. 'Since 1976, this has been the definitive reference work on computer, computing, and computer science. Alphabetically arranged and classified into broad subject areas, the entries cover hardware, computer systems, information and data, software, the mathematics of computing, theory of computation, methodologies, applications, and computing milieu. The editors have done a commendable job of blending historical perspective and practical reference information.
The encyclopedia remains essential for most public and academic library reference collections.' (Joe Accardin, Northeastern Illinois Univ., Chicago). Edwin D. Reilly (2003). Greenwood Publishing Group.Selected literature. (1996). Selected Papers on Computer Science.
CSLI Publications,. Collier, Bruce (1990). Garland Publishing Inc. Cohen, Bernard (2000). Howard Aiken, Portrait of a computer pioneer. The MIT press. Tedre, Matti (2014).
The Science of Computing: Shaping a Discipline. CRC Press,. (1973). The origins of Digital computers, Selected Papers. Springer-Verlag. 'Covering a period from 1966 to 1993, its interest lies not only in the content of each of these papers – still timely today – but also in their being put together so that ideas expressed at different times complement each other nicely.' Bernard, Zentralblatt MATH)Articles.
Peter J. Denning., Communications of the ACM, April 2005.
Peter J. Denning, Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, 2004. Research evaluation for computer science, Informatics Europe. Shorter journal version: Bertrand Meyer, Christine Choppy, Jan van Leeuwen and Jorgen Staunstrup, Research evaluation for computer science, in, vol.
4, pp. 31–34, April 2009.Curriculum and classification. 1998. Joint Task Force of Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), (AIS) and (IEEE CS). September 30, 2005., Allen Tucker.
'A model curriculum for a liberal arts degree in computer science'. Communications of the ACM, Volume 29 Issue 3, March 1986.External links Wikibooks has a book on the topic of.